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This article discusses the challenges faced by professional kindergarten teachers (PTs) and preservice kindergarten teachers (PSTs) during their participation in the ABATAC project, which took place during the academic year 2021–2022. The project’s aim was to provide astronomy training to PTs and PSTs, enabling them to plan and deliver astronomy lessons for young children. A combined quantitative and qualitative analysis of the data was conducted to comprehend the difficulties encountered by the participants during their training and implementation in classrooms. The research showed that ABATAC had an overall positive impact and did not present significant difficulties to the participants. However, some challenges that stood out included developing age-appropriate astronomy lessons for children and implementing ABATAC’s methodological approaches. Although the participants had limited knowledge of astronomy concepts and lacked experience in teaching astronomy activities, their confidence and self-efficacy in delivering astronomy activities improved after the ABATAC training. Additionally, some other issues, such as navigating the ABATAC course, were also brought up. The program appears to have contributed to an increase in the participants’ readiness and confidence to organize and implement astronomy activities in their teaching.

Introduction

Although the teaching of astronomy is a key part of science curricula in many countries around the world (such as the USA, UK, Canada, New Zealand, Greece, etc.) (Ministerial Decision 160476/D1, Government Gazette 5961/17-12-2021), very often, teachers carry misconceptions regarding the natural phenomena it encompasses (Brunsell & Marcks, 2005; Sadleret al., 2009). Teachers’ misconceptions or even ignorance about the concepts and phenomena of the macrocosm that they attempt to process in the classroom often unintentionally leads to undesirable learning outcomes, such as children maintaining their alternative interpretations of natural phenomena instead of understanding their scientific explanation (Ampartzaki & Kalogiannakis, 2016; Baileyet al., 2017; Danaia & McKinnon, 2007; Sadleret al., 2009) or organizing activities that lack scientific content (Brunsell & Marcks, 2005). Although, as several studies show, the field of astronomy is not a popular subject on which teachers choose to train (Baileyet al., 2017; Brunsell & Marcks, 2005), their education and training are deemed necessary in order to be able to teach the physical phenomena of the macrocosm (Panou & Violetis, 2018). As Chastenay (2018) points out, the main reason why astronomy, as a subject to be taught, is very low in teachers’ preferences is their low self-confidence about their knowledge of this subject, which stems from the lack of appropriate training.

The aim of the present study is to explore the extent to which a training project on the teaching of concepts and phenomena of the macrocosm can lead to an increase in the participants’ readiness to include astronomy activities in their teaching and to identify the participants’ perceptions about the teaching of astronomy in preschool, the difficulties they encounter in their attempt to organize and implement astronomy activities in the classroom. This will help to better understand which elements of the training appear to have the greatest impact on the participants and will indicate improvements needed. Research has shown that attending only one undergraduate course related to astronomy teaching seems not to be sufficient to improve student teachers’ confidence in delivering astronomy lessons (Ucar & Demircioglu, 2011). On the contrary, there is also research that shows that participation in a training program is sufficient to improve the degree of readiness of professional educators to integrate astronomy or another topic from the field of science into their teaching practice (Catalanoet al., 2019; Furtado, 2010; Halder & Fies, 2022; Plummer & Zahm, 2010; Yoo, 2016).

Moreover, research concludes that young children are capable of learning astronomy, but learning processes must be age-appropriate (Raviv & Dadon, 2021). To design and deliver age-appropriate activities on astronomy, educators must have proper training that encompasses both Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) and Content Knowledge (CK) (Barenthienet al., 2020; Kallery, 2001). PCK is the special knowledge of how to restructure, adjust, modify, and deliver content to meet the needs of a specific age (Shulman, 1987). Unfortunately, many teachers feel that they lack a sufficient understanding of fundamental astronomy principles and do not know how to integrate scientific information into classroom instruction (Appleton, 2003; Nurhafizah, 2018; Paskouet al., 2022).

Materials and Methods

The ABATAC Project

To counter the above issues, the project “A Blended Training Approach to Teaching Astronomy to Young Children” (abbreviation: ABATAC) was created to provide teachers with a Blended Learning (BL) training corpus that would help them acquire the requisite knowledge related to astronomy teaching and learning in the early years. ABATAC is specifically designed to help teachers of kindergarten and the first primary grades deliver astronomy education in their classrooms. The course materials were created taking into account an extensive literature assessment and advocating the use of inquiry-based learning (IBL) and art-based learning (ABL) for addressing astronomical themes. The course emphasizes the importance of alternating between earth-based and space-based viewpoints on the form, location, and motion of celestial bodies (Ampartzaki & Kalogiannakis, 2016).

ABATAC comprises four in-person methodological workshops (hereafter, workshops) and an online course (hereafter, ABATAC course) (for a total of 6–8 weeks). Upon the completion of this training, participants are encouraged to design and deliver astronomy lessons (for a duration of up to 10 weeks) and retain regular contact with the project experts (hereafter, the ABATAC team) for support. The ABATAC course consists of two main parts. The first part is dedicated to CK, which includes essential information about the Moon, stars, Sun, planets, gravity, and other celestial objects. The second part focuses on PCK. Thus, it provides an introduction to IBL and ABL, discusses the importance of developing children’s spatial thinking, and offers various ideas for teaching activities that align with the mentioned methodological framework.

IBL and ABL play a crucial role in ABATAC’s PCK. More specifically, ABATAC encourages students’ active participation in the knowledge-building process and their appropriation of scientific methods and practices such as questioning and hypothesizing, conducting experiments, observation, and recording (Chuet al., 2017; Eckhoff, 2017; Pedasteet al., 2015). For these reasons, inquiry-based learning is characterized as a student-centered educational strategy that seeks to improve the quality of the learning experience by enhancing not only the students’ autonomy and initiative but also their ability to investigate and find answers to their own research questions (Blessinger & Carfora, 2014). Art-based learning also plays a crucial role in enhancing inquiry-based learning by promoting various forms of communication among children, leading to increased efficacy, productivity, and self-expression (Wallace, 2006). Art-based learning is an integral component of the STEAM approach, which combines Science, Technology, Engineering, Art, and Mathematics to foster creativity, innovation, and interdisciplinary connections in education (Catchen, 2013; Conradty & Bogner, 2019; Jamilet al., 2018). By incorporating art and design into STEM subjects, STEAM education enhances analytical and critical thinking, problem-solving skills, teamwork, communication, flexibility, and digital literacy among students. Through engagement with art, children can explore diverse perspectives and concepts, investigate sentiments, generate meaning, and symbolically represent their experiences using visual, linguistic, aural, and tactile semiotics (Althouseet al., 2003; Atkinson, 2002; Burton, 2017; Helm & Katz, 2001). Thus, the ABATAC project utilizes art-based learning in three dimensions: introducing children to concepts and themes through art, encouraging self-expression and showcasing knowledge creatively, and enabling the comprehension of complex ideas and phenomena such as light diffusion in artworks like Van Gogh’s “Starry Night” painting.

Sample

The research sample consisted of 30 Professional kindergarten Teachers (PTs) and 46 Pre-service teachers (PSTs) of the Department of Preschool Education of the University of Crete who enrolled and implemented the ABATAC project in kindergartens during the school year 2021–2022. The sampling method was convenience sampling, which was chosen because ABATAC was a new project that needed to recruit committed volunteers for its first implementation (Creswell, 2015; Stratton, 2021). PSTs were selected from a group of 54 students enrolled in the Department’s Practicum, and all students received the same supervision from the first researcher. The whole research procedure received permission from the Ethics Committee of the University of Crete (No. 9/05.02.2021). The implementation of the ABATAC project in this study lasted 16–18 weeks and was distributed in a flexible way according to the needs and specific characteristics of each classroom.

Data Collection and Analysis

Data was collected through the use of four survey questionnaires and one semi-structured interview, which was conducted twice. The questionnaires were distributed at four different stages of the ABATAC project, including before the project began, after the completion of workshops, after the completion of the ABATAC course, and at the very end, after the completion of the classroom implementations. The interviews were conducted after the completion of the workshops and upon the completion of the entire project. Participants were asked to elaborate on and discuss the answers they provided in the questionnaires during the interviews. The questions asked during the interviews were open-ended, and the same for all interviewees. They encouraged participants to share their overall impression of ABATAC and any points they may not have been able to address in the questionnaires or throughout the evaluation process (Cohenet al., 2007).

The present study aims to answer the following research questions by presenting the outcomes from the final questionnaire and interview:

  1. What were the perceptions of the respondents regarding the difficulty and the challenges imposed by different components of the ABATAC project?
  2. How did respondents feel about the project’s impact on their teaching practices?

The information used to answer the questions was gathered through both closed-ended questionnaire items and open-ended interview questions. The questionnaire utilized Likert-type scales to ask respondents to rate their perceptions of their improvement in CK and PCK, the difficulties they faced in various aspects of the ABATAC project, the amount of time the project consumed, the challenges they encountered, as well as the sense of self-efficacy and confidence they developed. The interview questions covered topics similar to those of the questionnaire, with respondents asked to elaborate on their difficulties, as well as the factors that helped them improve their knowledge and understanding, as well as their sense of confidence and self-efficacy.

SPSS 21.0 was used for quantitative data analysis. Quantitative data was coded and entered into the software with accuracy checks, followed by the development of descriptive and inferential statistics. Qualitative data was analysed using a thematic analysis approach. An inductive open-ended coding led to various sets of codes, which were reviewed several times by two independent reviewers until a consensus was achieved during the process of thematic analysis of the qualitative data (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006; Nowellet al., 2017).

Results

Demographic Characteristics of the Sample

In the study, a total of 76 individuals participated. Out of these, 46 were preservice kindergarten teachers (PSTs), and 30 were professional kindergarten teachers (PTs). It was found that the majority of the participants were female (96.1%). This observation is not surprising since teaching in kindergarten is a profession that primarily attracts females.

Quantitative Results

One of the survey questions asked the participants to rate their perceived improvement in the CK of astronomy using a six-point Likert-type scale ranging from “Not at all” to “Very much”. The majority of participants (54.7%) reported a “much” degree of improvement, while 29.3% perceived their improvement to be “very much,” and 14.7% rated their improvement to be at a “medium” level.

The survey participants were also asked to rate the overall level of difficulty involved in the ABATAC project based on their personal perceptions. They rated it on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from “1. Not difficult at all” to “5. Particularly difficult for me”. Most of the participants (56%) found the overall ABATAC project to be of medium difficulty. 12% of the respondents rated ABATAC as difficult and 20% of little difficulty.

Moreover, the survey asked the participants to rate the level of difficulty they experienced while dealing with different ABATAC methodological principles and preferences (which comprise the ABATAC’s PCK). Table I presents the top and bottom rankings for each item included in the survey. The participants rated the difficulty level on a five-point Likert-type scale that ranged from 1. Not at all, 2. A little, 3. Medium, 4. Much, to 5. Very much.

Item no Item description Much–very much (%) Not at all–little (%)
1 The concepts and physical phenomena we had to work through. 10.7 54.7
2 The way the project proposed to take children’s ideas into account. 6.6 73.3
3 The way the project proposed to present natural phenomena to children. 5.3 69.3
4 The way the project proposed to organise the observation process. 4 73.3
5 The way the programme proposed to organise the experiments. 6.8 71.6
6 The way in which the project proposed the use of art activities. 5.3 80
7 The way in which the project proposed the use of educational resources (books, videos, models, etc.) 4 82.7
Table I. Ranking the Difficulty of ABATAC’s Methodological Principles and Preferences–I

Table I shows that the work method that ABATAC proposed did not cause any major difficulties for the participants. There were only two aspects that seemed to challenge participants, and these were the natural phenomena that teachers had to include in their implementations (excluding the 54.7% who did not encounter difficulties, 46.3% of the respondents experienced medium to very high difficulty on the specific issue). In a similar logic, 30.7% of the respondents declared that they had medium to very high difficulty in presenting these natural phenomena to the children (as opposed to 69.3% who declared they did not encounter difficulties).

The results related to the items in Table II were encouraging. A large majority of the respondents indicated that they found it easy to make methodological choices such as avoiding presentations that would make children passive, not providing ready-made answers to the children, or engaging in more active activities with the children. It was also easy to avoid using animism-anthropomorphism in their activities. Moreover, it is notable that about 4% of the respondents reported difficulties in avoiding ready-made answers, which indicates a need for further training and support.

Item no Item description Much–very much (%) Not at all–little (%)
1 I had a hard time restraining myself and not making presentations that kept the children passive. 1.3 82.7
2 I found it difficult to control myself and not provide “ready-made” answers to the children’s questions. 4 86.7
3 I had a hard time getting into the mindset of doing more active activities with the children. 0 82.7
4 I found it difficult to understand how art activities can contribute to the understanding of phenomena. 2.7 85.3
5 I found it difficult to avoid using animism-anthropomorphism in the activities. 1.4 89.2
Table II. Ranking ABATAC’s Methodological Principles and Preferences–II

One of the questions in the survey asked the participants to estimate the amount of time needed to develop a comprehensive understanding of ABATAC’s CK and PCK dimensions. The respondents had the option to rate their experience using a five-point Likert-type scale that ranged from 1. Very little, 2. Little, 3. Medium, 4. Much, to 5. Very much. Table III presents the two top and bottom rates in each survey item.

Item no Item description Much–very much (%) Very little–little (%)
1 How long did it take you to understand the physics of the phenomena we worked through in the program? 14.9 55.4
2 How long did it take you to understand the constructivist logic of the project? 16.7 48.6
3 How long did it take you to understand the logic of inquiry-based learning? 4.1 75.7
4 How much time did you need to understand the logic of art-based learning? 4.1 74.3
Table III. Estimating the Time to Develop an Understanding of ABATAC’s CK and PCK Dimensions

In Table III, we can observe that while a significant portion of the respondents found it easy to develop a comprehensive understanding of ABATAC’s components, such as CK and PCK, there is still a considerable proportion of people who require more time to grasp the concepts. This group ranges from those who need a lot of time to those who need a moderate amount of time. Roughly half of the population falls into this category when it comes to comprehending CK and the physics of the phenomena included in classroom implementations, as well as understanding the constructivist logic of PCK. However, the percentage drops to about 25% when it comes to understanding inquiry-based and art-based learning methodologies.

The survey also tried to gauge the respondents’ self-efficacy and confidence in developing and delivering astronomy lessons. Thus, it included questions that asked the respondents to rate their confidence levels on different aspects of organising astronomy lessons. They had the choice of a five-point scale ratings: 1. Very low (confidence), 2. Low, 3. Medium, 4. High, and 5. Very high. The top and bottom two ratings for each survey item are presented in Table IV.

Item no Item description High–very high (%) Very low–low (%)
1 My knowledge of the natural phenomena which were included in the programme 46.7 4
2 The way I plan the study of natural phenomena according to the project 58.7 2.7
3 The way I organise the activities to make them meaningful for the children 70.6 2.7
4 How I can organise inquiry-based learning 68 4
5 The way I organise art-based learning 61.3 6.7
6 Choosing appropriate materials to support children’s learning (in astronomy) 76 2.7
7 Organising the space in an appropriate way to support children’s research 73 5.4
8 In the development of other activities that I did not manage to implement this time 55.7 10
Table IV. Rating Self-Confidence in Different Aspects of Organising Astronomy Lessons

The results in Table IV indicate that the respondents have a very high level of confidence in certain aspects of the ABATAC methodology. These aspects include the organization of meaningful activities for children, finding appropriate resources, and creating a supportive learning environment. However, the remaining aspects have confidence levels below 70%, although they are still high. The lowest percentage of confidence (46.7%) was observed in the knowledge of physical phenomena included in the ABATAC project’s proposed activities, followed by the planning activities that focus on these natural phenomena.

The survey examined additional difficulties that the participants might have encountered while undergoing ABATAC training or implementing it in a classroom setting. The participants assessed these challenges on a five-point Likert scale, which included the following levels: 1. I strongly disagree, 2. I disagree, 3. Neither agree nor disagree, 4. I agree, and 5. I strongly agree. The outcomes are presented in Table V.

Item no Item description I agree–I totally agree (%) I disagree–I totally disagree (%)
1 I could not retain much of what I learned about astronomy. 2.6 73.3
2 Astronomy is a specialised and complex scientific field [for me to teach]. 1.3 86.7
3 I had no problem understanding the basic concepts and phenomena of astronomy. 74.7 5.3
4 Teaching concepts and phenomena of astronomy to young children is easy. 26.7 16
Table V. Rating Possible Challenges

Table V shows that although the overall study of the CK of the ABATAC course remained at high levels, a large proportion of the respondents found that teaching astronomy concepts and phenomena to young children was still not easy.

In our survey, the respondents were asked about their preference for various methodological choices and options promoted by the ABATAC PCK. To gather this information, they were asked to rate how frequently they currently use or plan to use these items in the future on a five-point Likert-type scale, with the following levels: 1. Not at all, 2. Little, 3. Medium, 4. Frequently, and 5. Very frequently. Table VI shows the results.

Item no Item description Frequently–very frequently (%) Not at all–little (%)
1 I present the phenomenon to the children, trying to explain it as best I can. 33.4 60
2 I present the phenomenon with pictures/photos. 90.7 4
3 I use educational videos and/or simulations to introduce a phenomenon to children. 96 0
4 I have the children make observations. 100 0
5 I have the children do experiments on concepts and phenomena of the macrocosm. 100 0
6 I get the children to systematically make lots of records (observations, experiments, results, data, etc.). 97.4 0
7 In astronomy activities, I use artworks such as paintings, music, installations, etc. 90.5 0
8 In the astronomy activities, I ask the children to make their own crafts or other art creations related to the astronomy topics we are working on (we always talk about creations that are solely the work of the children). 98.7 0
9 In astronomy activities, children make astronomy-themed crafts following ideas and templates found in books, teacher magazines, the internet, etc. 54.6 38.7
10 In the astronomy activities, I ask the children to explain what they perceive without first giving them any information. 92 2.7
11 I ask the children to explain what they perceive after each activity of observation, experiment, construction, etc. 100 0
12 I ask the children to explain what they perceive after each activity of observation, experiment, construction, etc. 100 0
Table VI. Using the Methodological Preferences of the ABATAC PCK

In Table VI, items no. 2–8 and 10–12 represent teaching practices that indicate a more student-directed approach and a shift towards inquiry-based and art-based learning. However, items with no. 1 and 9 represent a more teacher-directed approach, which is not congruent with IBL and ABL. The data reveals that 33.4% of the respondents tend to explain phenomena to children, which is not an appropriate practice in IBL and ABL. The very essence of these approaches is to encourage discovery and the use of the scientific method. Therefore, it is also expected that teachers avoid encouraging children to use ready-made ideas and templates at the expense of developing their own creativity. However, the data shows that 54.6% of the sample still follows this strategy.

In addition, the participants were asked to express their level of agreement or disagreement with statements that reflected the overall impact of ABATAC on their teaching practices. These statements are presented in Table VII. Participants were asked to rate their level of agreement on a five-point Likert-type scale, which included the following levels: 1. Very little, 2. Little, 3. Medium, 4. Much, and 5. Very much.

Item no Item description Much–very much (%) Not at all–little (%)
1 The ABATAC programme sets realistic targets for the children. 89.2 1.4
2 The project gives good ideas for developing astronomy activities. 98.7 0
3 The project helped me to change my perceptions about the meaning of activities for children. 88 4
4 The project helped me to change my perceptions about how to organise learning. 89.2 4.1
5 The project helped me to change my perceptions about how to organise learning through art. 85.3 4
6 The programme helped me to change my learning practices and strategies. 82.4 5.4
7 The project has caused changes in the general way I organise activities in the kindergarten/school (in any cognitive area and in any subject area). 83.6 6.8
Table VII. Rating the Overall Impact of ABATAC on the Respondents’ Teaching Practices

According to Table VII, the respondents rated the ABATAC project as very useful overall. They also indicated a positive reception and understanding of the project’s methodological principles and preferences. Furthermore, the respondents show that the project had a significant impact on their teaching practices and strategies.

Qualitative Results

The thematic analysis conducted on the qualitative data revealed a variety of positive thoughts, feelings, and issues. However, due to size limitations, we will only be focusing on the challenges that PSTs and PTs reported in the final interview regarding the implementation of the ABATAC project. The major challenges and the number of respondents who mentioned each one are presented in Table VIII.

Challenges Number of cases PTs Number of cases PSTs
The lack of educational resources 4 4
The volume of information in the ABATAC course 9 3
Navigation in the ABATAC course 6 5
The closure of the ABATAC course (after completion, the course was no longer available) 2 0
Astronomy is a distinct subject that sets itself apart from more conventional topics 6 22
Lack of knowledge of astronomy (astronomy CK) 4 21
Teaching astronomy requires a lot of preparation by the teacher 3 8
The limited personal time to invest in learning astronomy 7 5
The school schedule has limited time to include astronomy 10 2
The methodological approach of the project 6 3
The profile of the students in the class 4 0
Adapting activities to the cognitive level and interests of the children 5 22
Lack of teaching experience 0 7
Planning and organising astronomy activities in general 0 15
To arouse the interest of the children 0 4
Table VIII. Challenges that Respondents Mentioned During Their Final Interview

As shown in Table VIII, the biggest challenge mentioned by both PTs and PSTs was the fact that astronomy was a new subject for them. As far as professionals are concerned, it seems that even teachers with many years of experience have never been involved in this subject, which raises several questions as to why this might be the case. Adapting the concepts and phenomena of the macrocosm included in the ABATAC project to the interests and cognitive level of the children was the second most frequent difficulty reported by most of the students in the sample and a barrier that teachers were also asked to face. To this, we could add a challenge that PSTs faced in planning and organising astronomy activities in general. In addition, the lack of prior knowledge of astronomy seems to have made it difficult for the PTs and PSTs in the sample to understand the astronomical concepts and phenomena involved in the ABATAC project. The participants’ knowledge gap towards this topic seems to have led them to devote considerable time and attention to their study. Regarding the difficulty related to the lack of time, the teachers stressed the limited teaching time available to them for astronomy due to various situations that took place in their classrooms, while the students underlined the lack of personal free time to study the material of the ABATAC course and understand its content.

The respondents mentioned a variety of other challenges, albeit in lower frequencies. For example, navigating through the ABATAC course platform was reported as a challenge because of the way the study material was organised in the course and reduced familiarity with the different ways of studying electronic materials. The general methodological orientation of the programme (that is, the ABATAC PCK) also seems to have made it difficult for some students and teachers in the sample. As respondents explained, familiarity with teacher-centred learning styles, both from their own time in kindergarten and from their experience as teachers, made it quite difficult for them to understand and then apply the methodological principles followed by the ABATAC PCK. Other challenges included the lack of teaching experience (mentioned by PSTs), difficulty in arousing children’s interest, and the profile of the class students.

In summary, this study evaluated the experiences of kindergarten teachers and student teachers who participated in an astronomy training program (the ABATAC project), focusing on challenges faced during training and implementing astronomy activities in classrooms. Participants initially found teaching astronomy to young children challenging. The ABATAC project aimed to improve participants’ readiness to include astronomy activities in teaching, with training positively impacting their confidence and effectiveness. The study highlighted difficulties in adapting astronomy concepts to children’s cognitive levels, managing instructional time, and navigating the course platform. Lack of teaching experience, personal study time, and unfamiliarity with inquiry-based learning were also obstacles. The project’s methodological preferences favoured student-directed approaches, but some participants declared that they still follow teacher-directed practices. Qualitative analysis revealed challenges such as lack of educational resources, volume of course information, navigation issues, and adapting activities to children’s interests and cognitive levels. Other challenges included the distinct nature of astronomy, lack of prior knowledge, time constraints, and methodological orientation difficulties.

Discussion and Conclusion

As pointed out in the international literature, training teachers on pedagogical strategies and instructional design can bring positive results on the quality of the teaching practices they adopt in order to maximize children’s learning (Hallinger & Heck, 2011; Ho, 2011; Keung & Cheung, 2019). In terms of preschool education, improving teachers’ competencies has a positive impact on children’s overall development and their subsequent academic progress (Brownet al., 2012; Ho, 2011; Keung & Fung, 2021; NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2005). Regarding the teaching of science topics in the early years, research has indicated that teachers’ lack of PCK negatively affects their preference to include it in their instruction (Appleton, 2003; Gerdeet al., 2013; Gomes & Fleer, 2020; Kallery & Psillos, 2001; Saçkes, 2015). It is worth noting that preschool children are more likely to be exposed to literature, mathematics, and art during their time in kindergarten than to science topics (Earlyet al., 2010; Greenfieldet al., 2009).

Similar results were also found in the present study. It seems that one of the major difficulties of the ABATAC project for both PSTs and PTs was the appropriate delivery of science topics, concepts, and ideas in the classroom. A possible explanation for these feelings could be the lack of training teachers receive in this area. As mentioned by Brígidoet al. (2013), the lack of knowledge on a teaching subject causes feelings of anxiety and stress to the teachers who are required to include it in their teaching. Conversely, teacher training on a subject increases teachers’ sense of self-efficacy about teaching it (Catalanoet al., 2019; Plummer & Zahm, 2010; Yoo, 2016). Research has shown that there is a positive correlation between the degree of science and astronomy courses taken by teacher education students at the undergraduate level and their confidence in incorporating corresponding activities in their teaching. Studies focusing on the perceptions of teacher education students towards science topics, particularly astronomy, suggest that the more relevant courses they take, the more confident they feel about incorporating related activities in their teaching (Craker, 2006; Papanastasiou & Zembylas, 2004; Ucar & Demircioglu, 2011). The ABATAC training seems to have worked in a similar way. Both PSTs and PTs in the sample showed that the training they received helped them to show greater levels of confidence in the teaching of astronomy. These results also show relevance to the results of a study that investigated the degree of preparedness of participants on teaching topics from the field of astronomy before and after their participation in a similar training programme (Halder & Fies, 2022).

This study also highlighted the lack of knowledge of astronomy and the unfamiliarity of the participants with teaching relevant subjects as factors that made it difficult for PSTs and PTs. This fact is confirmed by other studies according to which teachers’ ignorance of the teaching subject of astronomy acts as a deterrent to include it in their teaching (Baileyet al., 2017; Danaia & McKinnon, 2007; Halder & Fies, 2022; Sadleret al., 2009).

Another element that seems to have made it difficult for the students and teachers in the sample to organise astronomy activities was their familiarity with different teaching methods compared to the IBL and ABL approaches proposed by the project. This finding agrees with the results of other studies on the insecurity teachers feel when they are asked to organize their teaching following the principles of inquiry learning in situations with which they are not familiar (Fitzgeraldet al., 2019; Garetet al., 2001; Kallery, 2004; Kallery & Psillos, 2001). On the other hand, the study of the ABATAC course material and the attendance of the training seminars conducted within the framework of the project seemed to have increased the degree of readiness of the participants to organize astronomy activities in the classroom. The positive impact that a training programme can have on increasing the degree of effectiveness and confidence of teachers to include a subject new to them in their teaching and the adoption of new learning strategies have been highlighted by other research internationally (see Furtado, 2010).

Furthermore, the addition of an additional subject matter to the daily kindergarten curriculum appears to have been an aggravating factor for some teachers because it made it difficult for them to manage instructional time (see also Fitzgeraldet al., 2019; Furtado, 2010; Greenfieldet al., 2009). Another thing that seemed to make it difficult for most PTs and PSTs was navigating the ABATAC course platform, which the research team should consider more carefully in the future. The research also showed that adapting scientific concepts and phenomena to the cognitive level and interests of children was an element that most of the students and some of the teachers in the sample found difficult. As Kallery points out, one difficulty kindergarten teachers face when teaching natural phenomena is adapting the content of their teaching so that it can be understood by children. According to her, this finding provokes scepticism regarding adequate PCK training in science, even among experienced or seasoned teachers (Kallery, 2004). Moreover, lack of teaching experience was mentioned by PSTs as a factor that caused anxiety, whilst lack of personal study time made it difficult for almost both PTs and PSTs to respond to the demands of the ABATAC project.

Some PTs and PSTs in our study mentioned they faced difficulties while navigating the ABATAC course. Similar initiatives have also studied the platform usability and user experience and concluded that when online navigation is rated as unfriendly, it should be improved to provide an improved user experience. Moreover, when choosing scientific understanding tools, educators should prioritize simplicity of use and technology support (Schmidt & Fulton, 2016). Online astronomy programs are becoming increasingly popular, indicating a shift towards digital learning platforms for informal and lifetime learning in all fields (Impey & Formanek, 2021). Researchers have found that online astronomy courses provide a flexible and complete learning environment. Online astronomy courses are successful because they provide interactive learning, tailored assistance, and performance monitoring (Vogt & Muise, 2015). Astronomy education should also employ digital tools like computer simulations to explain complex astronomical phenomena that are hard to examine in a lab. Digital tools provide instructional possibilities for PSTs and PTs (Bell & Trundle, 2008; Langendorfet al., 2022). Moreover, inquiry-based learning using educational technology can improve PSTs’ scientific conceptions, particularly in complicated areas like astronomy. PSTs should participate in inquiry-based activities utilizing educational technology to enhance their science teaching (Bell & Trundle, 2008).

Conclusion

In brief, this research examined the perspectives of professional kindergarten instructors and student kindergarten instructors who undertook an astronomy training programme known as the ABATAC project. The study specifically examined the obstacles encountered throughout the training process and in the execution of astronomy-related classroom activities. Participants found instructing young children in astronomy to be initially difficult. The objective of the ABATAC initiative was to enhance the preparedness of participants to incorporate astronomy activities into their lessons; the training had a beneficial influence on their self-assurance and efficacy. Difficulties in adapting astronomy concepts to the cognitive levels of children, managing instructional time, and traversing the course platform were highlighted in the study. Insufficient teaching experience, limited personal study time, and ignorance regarding inquiry-based learning constituted additional challenges. Although the project’s methodological inclinations were in favour of student-directed approaches, certain participants acknowledged that they continue to adhere to teacher-directed practices. Adapting activities to the interests and cognitive levels of children, insufficient educational resources, a substantial amount of course information, and difficulties in navigation were all identified through qualitative analysis. Further obstacles encompassed the unique characteristics of astronomy, insufficient pre-existing knowledge, temporal limitations, and challenges related to methodological orientation.

Limitations of the Study and Implications for Future Research

This research underscores the necessity for further empirical support concerning the impacts of ABATAC on PTs and PSTs and the difficulties they encounter as they proceed through the ABATAC project. A greater number of participants must be included in the sample for a deeper understanding of their training prerequisites. Furthermore, since this research examines the results of a specific procedure, supplementary approaches, including comprehensive dialogues, peer assessments, and similar methodologies, could potentially yield a more profound understanding of the ABATAC’s problematic issues and its potential to improve teacher training and practice in astronomy education. Longitudinal studies could allow us to monitor the development of teachers’ PCK and practice over a longer period and assess the long-term ABATAC effects.

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