Communication in Greek Elementary Education Textbooks (2006–2024)

The school textbooks currently in use in Greek primary schools have been in circulation for almost twenty years. The design of the Interdisciplinary Unified Framework of Curricula, which was institutionalized by a state law in 2003, comprises the following elements for each class and for each individual teaching subject: a) the axes of the cognitive content, b) the general objectives of each teaching course (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values) and c) the fundamental concepts of the interdisciplinary approach, which are diffused in the texts of the school books. The general objectives provide general guidance for the design and formulation of the content of the textbooks and are grouped under three headings. One such axis is interpersonal communication, which pertains to the social skills that students are expected to develop. The objective of this research is to examine whether and to what extent the authors of textbooks published in Greece in 2006 and still in use today have contributed to the cultivation of communication skills in primary school students through the content of their teaching units.

Introduction

The significance of communication is pivotal to the existence and advancement of all living organisms. For humans, the concept of communication is identified with the essence and purpose of their existence, as it has a crucial effect on their cognitive, emotional, and spiritual development through their interactions, exchanges, experiences, reflections, desires, and emotions. The literature contains a plethora of definitions of communication, which serves to illustrate the complexity of the concept and the intricacies of the process. As Kontakos (2017) asserts, communication is a complex life phenomenon in which humans engage with all their senses as psychosomatic and spiritual entities. By engaging in this process, individuals can draw upon their intrinsic motivations and external stimuli to exchange thoughts and emotions that can be comprehended, thereby achieving a range of objectives within diverse communicative settings, both professional and social.

In contemporary literature on the subject, a number of useful typologies of communication contexts and theoretical traditions that support them can be identified. One such typology, as set forth by Littlejohnet al. (2017), enumerates eight communication constructs (communicator, message, conversation, relationship, group, organization, media, culture and society) based on seven theoretical traditions or communication theories (semiotic, phenomenological, cybernetic, socio-cultural, socio-psychological, rhetorical and critical).

This perspective entails communication with a range of disciplines that examine human action and behavior, including those pertaining to health, education, and culture, among others. In the context of the school and educational environment, communication is characterized by distinctive features that contribute to its unique identity. This fact, once subjected to scientific scrutiny, led to the establishment of a conceptual framework that is internationally recognized as communication education. This frame is divided into three sub-epistemological fields: (a) communication pedagogy, (b) developmental communication and (c) instructional communication (Stamatis, 2013).

Literature Review

The textbook serves as an instructional tool, acting as a mediator between the teacher and students, as well as between the specific sciences and the specific teaching methods employed. Given its role, it is situated at the nexus of conflicts between various actors in the school environment, including those representing special sciences, the school itself, and public opinion. The textbook is presented in the format of a book, with the intention of being utilized by students as well as educators. Its defining characteristic is that it has been approved for use in schools by the relevant services of the Ministry of Education. In comparison to other textbooks, this one is distinctive in that it is aligned with the requirements of the curriculum of a course and its production is aimed at guiding the teacher in teaching and the student in learning, both within the school environment and at home. The entity responsible for ensuring the aforementioned conditions is, in each country, the Ministry of Education. A number of terms used to describe the teaching manual can be found in the literature and are considered to be synonymous.

The available evidence suggests that the time spent by students engaging with educational materials as part of the teaching process is greater than the corresponding time spent in interpersonal interactions with teachers. It has been estimated that 60% of teaching time is spent by students working on the basis of the textbook (Bonidis, 2012).

The authority of the textbook and the written text has historical roots and still seems to be projected in the future as a powerful symbol. It is also significant that historically, for only a small number of books that have been used in school education, we retain any memory of their author, as they are an intellectual creation that is not an individual product but is the result of procedures imposed by the institution that calls for their compilation. In this case, the Ministry of Education bears responsibility for the creation of the textbook. In this way, the textbook acquired credibility, neutrality and impersonal authority that is typically associated with state-produced products. During the course of teaching, textbooks serve designed functions, seeking to achieve specific objectives as stated in the curricula. The functions in question, as outlined by Kapsali and Charalambous (2008:214), are as follows: a) presenting reality, b) activating learning motivation, c) differentiating instruction, d) practicing and consolidating, e) guiding instruction, and f) socializing.

The teaching manual is produced for use by students and teachers in the process of teaching with the objective of facilitating a teacher-directed learning path for students. The teaching manual is currently presented as a comprehensive teaching package, comprising the Student’s Book (P.L.B.), the Teacher’s Book (T.L.B.), the Workbook (W.E.) and a reference book (Dictionary, Anthology), which is accompanied by the other manuals for certain subjects.

A historical analysis of textbooks in Greece reveals four distinct periods. The first period, which commenced immediately following the formation of the first free Greek state and extended until 1882, saw the emergence of the principles of state interventionism. The second period, which lasted from 1883 to 1916, was characterized by the formulation of these principles. The third period, which spanned from 1917 to 1936, was shaped by the dominance of the language issue in educational policy. The fourth period, which commenced in 1937, is the current era.

In the latter half of the 20th century, the most significant discussions concerning educational reforms in Europe and the United States focused on the development of new curricula. In Greece, the debate on curricula first emerged in the 1960s, while from the 1980s onwards, there were tangible developments towards the structured formulation of curricula and textbooks aligned with these curricula.

The term ‘curriculum’ is a translation and rendering in Greek of the Latin term ‘curriculum’. The original meaning of the Latin word was complex, as evidenced by the term “curriculum”. The primary meaning of the Latin word was complex and multifaceted, encompassing a broader scope than that of the modern curriculum. Nevertheless, the term ‘curriculum’ is conceptually highly analogous to the term ‘curriculum’. Accordingly, the original concept is best understood as a cyclical course, progressing in a circular fashion through an ancient stage. In practice, this implies that the conceptualization of the term in the present era should be equated with a cycle of study within an academic institution, such as a school or university.

As Hadjigeorgiou (2012) asserts, the term ‘curriculum’ is derived from the English word ‘course’, used in its most basic sense. This is evidenced by its usage in the English expression ‘course of study’ and in the Greek phrases’ cycle of study’ or ‘cycle of studies’. The cyclicality implied in these phrases serves to corroborate the assertion that these expressions have their etymological roots in the meaning of the Latin word ‘curriculum’ (Stamatis, 2013).

It should be noted that the term ‘curriculum’, as used in Greek literature and in the official texts of the Ministry of Education, does not refer to timetables. Rather, it is used to describe a program that includes a record of objectives, activities, instructions, course content, and so forth. It is a logical consequence of the purpose of curricula that they should contain the essential element of preparation for the overall learning process.

The design of curricula can be approached in a multitude of methods, contingent on the axes of targeting that the political leadership has determined to prioritize. If the orientation of curricula is cognitive, then curricula are designed with the subjects divided into modules and sub-modules, which are arranged in an organizational hierarchical structure. This structure is dependent on the developmental stage of the students, the level of difficulty of the modules, and other factors. In the case of a learner-centered curriculum, it is preferable to design empirical subjects that require the involvement of students. This enables the interaction between the student and the environment to be designed with appropriate activities and materials. In the case of a social orientation to curriculum design, the knowledge, attitudes and skills necessary for the social context in which the students live are selected, and objectives are formulated to ensure that the requisite knowledge, attitudes and skills have been acquired (Stamatis, 2015).

Method

The primary focus of this study is the Analytical Program for Compulsory Education, which has been incorporated into the Interdisciplinary Unified Framework of Curricula–Analytical Curricula Programs (IUFC-ACP) published in legislative acts (Government Gazette 303/B/13-03-2003). The content of the textbooks was subjected to an investigation (content analysis) in five stages. In the initial phase of the investigation, the IUFC-ACPs were examined within the context of the classroom. Any relevant references to module titles and content were identified under the overarching theme of communication.

The second stage comprised a comprehensive inventory study of all the textbooks. The third stage comprises the transcription of the textbooks in which the research identified instances of language that explicitly refers to communicative contexts, processes and concepts related to the term “communication.” The fourth stage concerns the interpretation of the findings in the analytical context of communication. The fifth stage formulates the conclusions drawn from this research.

The specific objectives of this research are as follows: (a) the identification of all instances of the term’ communication’ and the interpretation of all words or phrases that refer directly or indirectly to the concept of communication, to the process or content of any form of communication (b) the clarification and classification of different communicative contexts chosen by the writing teams of the textbooks, in order to meet the requirements of the curriculum for all its interdisciplinary dimensions (c) the evaluation of the frequency of occurrence of communication patterns (verbal patterns or other communication contexts) will be evaluated and interpreted.

The findings will be classified by subject group (language, environmental education, science, etc.). The communication contexts will also be classified by subject group (language, environmental education, science, etc.). The priorities served by these groups in relation to the interdisciplinary dimension of communication will be highlighted.

In particular, the research questions that were formulated are as follows: Q1: Does the concept of communication, as one of the fundamental concepts of an interdisciplinary approach, manifest itself in the set of teaching packages that implement the objectives of the IUFC-ACP? Q2: In the teaching packages that implement the objectives of the IUFC-ACP and include the concept of communication, how often are concepts that refer and/or relate more or less directly or indirectly to the concept of communication identified, by subject area, as one of the indicative fundamental concepts of an interdisciplinary approach?

The population under consideration in this research is the set of primary school textbooks, comprising student’s Books, Workbooks and Teacher’s Books for all subjects within the official Curriculum (152 textbooks in total).

The sampling frame is identical to the population under study, namely all textbooks. In accordance with the definitions of the population and the sampling frame, no sampling method is employed; rather, the entire population is utilized, whereby findings that address our research questions (Q1–Q2) are identified. Each textbook is considered a sampling unit, wherein findings that address our research questions (Q1–Q2) are identified.

Results

The set of textbooks, which were used for research purposes and based on the relevant assumptions of the IEPC-APD, were classified into five domains:

i. Language

ii. Environmental Education

iii. Mathematics

iv. Sciences

v. Arts

The 152 textbooks of the Greek primary school, which are currently in use, were thoroughly investigated. 79 (52%) of the textbooks under consideration, references to the fundamental concept of an interdisciplinary approach to communication were identified, either explicitly or indirectly, in a manner that clearly refers to a communicative context, process, etc. (Table I).

Table I. Distribution of Textbooks with and without Findings

Field	Total number of textbooks	Number of textbooks with findings	Percentage % of total textbooks
Language	44	32	21
Environmental education	41	20	13.2
Mathematics	37	14	9.2
Sciences	13	8	5.3
Arts	17	5	3.3
Sum of references	152	79	52

In the Language Textbooks, findings were identified in 32 textbooks, representing 21% of the total number of textbooks analyzed (Table I). The findings pertaining to the fundamental concept of an interdisciplinary approach to communication constituted 24.2% of the total findings, as illustrated in Table II. It can therefore be seen that there is a consistency and proportionality in the approach taken by the authoring teams of the language textbooks at all grade levels, which is both adequate and consistent.

Table II. Total Findings by Subject Area

Language	1769	24.2%
Environmental education	3516	48.2%
Mathematics	312	4.3%
Sciences	1518	20.8%
Arts	187	2.6%
Sum of references	7302	100%

In the textbooks belonging to the Environmental Education field, findings were identified in 20 textbooks, representing 13.2% of the total number of textbooks (Table I). Findings pertaining to the fundamental concept of an interdisciplinary approach to communication constituted 48.2% of all findings, as illustrated in Table II. It can thus be seen that the author groups the environmental textbooks at all levels of education, with particular emphasis and in three times the proportion of the textbooks, conveyed messages that pertain to communication and communication context, processes, and so forth. As illustrated in Table II, this domain represents the highest percentage, at twice the proportion of the second domain (language). This evidence suggests that the primary domain where the fundamental concept of an interdisciplinary approach to communication can be developed is that of the environment, thereby enabling teachers to enhance and consolidate students’ communication skills.

For the field of Mathematics, findings were identified in 14 textbooks, accounting for 9.2% of the total number of textbooks (Table I). The findings concerning the fundamental concept of an interdisciplinary approach to communication accounted for 4.3% of all findings, as illustrated in Table II. Thus, it can be observed that the authoring teams of the mathematics textbooks at all grade levels accorded greater priority to other fundamental concepts of an interdisciplinary approach and cognitive issues pertaining to the curriculum content than to the concept of communication.

A review of the Sciences textbooks revealed that findings were located in eight textbooks, representing 5.3% of the total number of textbooks (Table I). Findings pertaining to the fundamental concept of an interdisciplinary approach to communication constituted 20.8% of all findings, as illustrated in Table II. It is evident that the authoring teams of science textbooks at all grade levels, despite the imperative for interdisciplinary coverage of the curriculum due to the expansive nature of the scientific field, assigned considerable importance to the fundamental concept of an interdisciplinary approach to communication.

In the field of Arts, findings were located in five textbooks, representing 3.3% of the total number of textbooks (Table I). Findings pertaining to the fundamental concept of an interdisciplinary approach to communication constituted 2.6% of all findings, as illustrated in Table II. It can thus be seen that the authoring teams of the textbooks in the field of art courses, in all grades, prioritized other fundamental concepts of an interdisciplinary approach over the concept of communication.

Conclusions

The objective of this study was to investigate the occurrence of references to communicative processes or communicative context in current primary school textbooks.

As illustrated by the tabulation, annotation and discussion of the findings, this study identified significant findings from a thorough review of the textbooks. An interdisciplinary approach necessarily entails a fundamental understanding of the concept of communication.

In approximately 52% of the textbooks, a sufficient number of findings were identified that directly refer to the concept of communication or a communication process. The classification of the distinct subjects of the Primary School Curriculum into sectors (Language Sector, Environmental Sector, Mathematics Sector, Science Sector and Art Sector) facilitated the classification of the findings into groups of subjects and the evaluation of the choices made by the writing teams in terms of developing the concept of communication.

As previously indicated, the Environmental Education field represents the most prominent course domain in terms of both the absolute number of findings and the percentage of the total. In comparison to the other domains, it is evident that this domain stands out in terms of the frequency of occurrence of findings. It appears that the authoring teams of the courses in this domain prioritized the concept of communication, as evidenced by the numerous opportunities they provided for students to enhance their communication skills.

In addition to the subject of Environmental Studies, the Environment sector encompasses the subjects of History and Religious Studies. The various writing teams responsible for the textbooks in these subjects sought to identify opportunities for students to engage in communicative processes, with the aim of actively and effectively promoting the processing of the curriculum. This involvement has the twofold effect of promoting the development of the course content and enabling students to exercise their communication skills, both individually and in groups, in a manner that is either relatively formal or informal, and which may be either serious or playful. As a result of this immersive approach to developing communication skills, students are also engaged in lessons in other subject areas, thereby enhancing their capacity to utilize and capitalize on these skills and ultimately facilitating the realization of their learning objectives.

At the opposite end of the spectrum in terms of the prevalence of findings in environmental subjects are mathematics and art subjects, with a respective prevalence of 4.2% and 2.6%. The sample size is considerable, encompassing 52% of the textbooks. The findings indicate that the writing teams of both the Mathematics and Art textbooks placed significant emphasis on other fundamental concepts of an interdisciplinary approach rather than on the concept of communication.

The mathematics textbooks concentrate on the cognitive domain, aiming to fulfill the requirements of the curriculum and address the diverse fields necessitated by the interdisciplinary approach. In light of the limitations imposed by the curriculum, it has become evident that certain concepts have been de-prioritized in terms of their representation. One such concept is that of communication. A similar phenomenon appears to be occurring in the context of art courses. The findings at the 3% level indicate that communication was not a priority for the writing teams of the music and visual arts textbooks, despite the fact that communication as a tool of expression is directly linked to the arts.

The Language domain and the Science domain occupy a position between the extremes of the aforementioned domains, with percentages of 24% and 20%, respectively. In these domains, which are characterized by high cognitive complexity, the writing teams appear to balance the inclusion of a range of fundamental concepts in an interdisciplinary approach. Communication constitutes an axis of interest in these domains, accounting for approximately 20%–25% of the content. This choice of authoring teams demonstrates a deliberate and effective approach to fostering communication skills in a constructive setting. This approach is integrated harmoniously with the overall development of the students involved in the process, reflecting a comprehensive and well-rounded educational experience.

Suggestions for Follow-Up on the Findings and Further Research

It is recommended that further research be undertaken on the common strands of the objectives across all levels of schooling. The aforementioned grouping of the axes allows for a research-based approach to be taken with regard to the specific objectives, thereby facilitating the capture and emergence of activities that serve them. Consequently, further research is required in relation to the knowledge and methodology axis, the axis of cooperation and communication, and finally, the axis of the relationship between science or art and everyday life.

Limitations of the Research

In this study, efforts were made to maximize the validity and reliability of the research. In particular, the method of content analysis was employed, leveraging its inherent capabilities through meticulous categorization of the concepts to be investigated. Particular attention was paid to the description of synonymous concepts, and a detailed abstract was constructed so that each mention of them was not considered to necessarily refer to a communication process, but only by confirming each finding.

Nevertheless, it is acknowledged that there is a degree of inaccuracy in the correspondence between the analytical and research categories and the conclusions, which introduces an element of uncertainty into the process of generalizing the conclusions and thus affects the overall validity of the analysis. Furthermore, it is recognized that the utilization of computer software for word counting entails the potential for bias, particularly in the process of differentiating between synonyms and homonyms. To ensure the reliability of the conclusions drawn from this research, the definitions of conceptual categories were subjected to rigorous evaluation, encompassing their validity as well.

A further limitation of the present research is the absence of corresponding research in textbooks on the development of the concept of communication in Greece and internationally. From the set of fundamental concepts of an interdisciplinary approach, the concept of communication is one of those that fall within the group of objectives of cooperation and communication. Therefore, it is not possible to combine the findings of this study with those of similar research projects in order to reach more reliable conclusions. This constitutes a limitation in terms of the scope for generalizing the conclusions.