Reading Comprehension in Adolescents with Intellectual Disabilities: Interventions in Laboratory of Special Professional Education and Training

Adolescents with intellectual disabilities (ID) face significant challenges in basic academic skills, with reading comprehension being particularly affected. This issue becomes more pronounced in secondary education, where curriculum demands increase and individualized instructional support is required. The purpose of the present action research is to investigate differentiated strategies for reading comprehension, utilizing the pedagogical tool “Targeted, Individual, Structured, and Integrated Program for Students with Special Educational Needs (TISIPfSEN)”. The study focuses on two research questions: (a) to what extent does differentiated pedagogical material support reading comprehension, and (b) which instructional intervention strategies enhance students’ active engagement in the learning process. The research was conducted with a sample of four students (N = 4), with a mean age of 14 years, attending a Laboratory of Special Professional Education and Training. Data collection tools were based on observational and instructional intervention methodologies, while results were documented using Basic Skills Checklists and graphical representations. Findings indicate that differentiated pedagogical materials substantially contribute to the improvement of reading comprehension through activities that activate the neurodevelopmental areas of learning readiness.

Introduction

This study addresses the implementation of differentiated interventions to support basic academic skills, such as reading comprehension, in students with intellectual disabilities (ID). Statistically, the prevalence of intellectual disabilities in children and adolescents is estimated to be 3.2% worldwide, increasing with age. Among adolescents aged 15–19 years, the prevalence is 6% (Olusanyaet al., 2022). Reading comprehension is the least developed skill among all the academic abilities of students with ID (Nilssonet al., 2021). Low performance becomes more pronounced during the transition to secondary education, often resulting in school dropouts (Panopoulos & Drossinou-Korea, 2021). Given these challenges, attention is frequently paid to the development of life skills (Panopoulos & Drossinou-Korea, 2024). Curriculum demands and the lack of specialized teacher training in the field of special education often contribute to insufficient instructional support for reading skills, thereby reinforcing feelings of failure and exclusion from learning processes (Dessemontetet al., 2021; Drossinou-Korea, 2024). However, research has indicated that this student population responds positively to reading comprehension interventions (Alloret al., 2018). Consequently, there is a need to implement differentiated instructional interventions that support the development of reading comprehension skills (Panopoulos & Drossinou-Korea, 2024).

This action research study contributes in this direction by focusing on the use of the pedagogical tool “Targeted, Individual, Structured, and Integrated Program for Students with Special Educational Needs (TISIPfSEN)” to enhance reading comprehension among students with intellectual disabilities in secondary education.

Literature Review

Students with intellectual disabilities (ID) often exhibit low levels of reading skills, which may not be due to cognitive ability but rather to limited learning opportunities and low expectations from adults involved in their learning (Biggset al., 2023). Recent research has shown that when adequately supported, these students can develop reading skills, signaling that improving academic outcomes should be a teaching priority (Lindström & Lemons, 2021).

Alloret al. (2018) argued that recent approaches emphasize comprehensive literacy programs that combine decoding, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. Their study demonstrated that the use of specially adapted books and activities significantly benefits students with low IQs (40–79). The program included three stages: decoding practice, reading adapted texts, and comprehension activities with visual conceptual facilitators, graphic organizers, and questioning games. The results highlight the feasibility of these interventions and the importance of teaching through materials familiar to students, which enhances comprehension.

Dessemontetet al. (2024) emphasized that developing reading comprehension in students with ID, autism, or syndromes requires intensive, long-term teaching. Simple reading or listening to texts is insufficient; content adaptation and the use of strategies such as visual conceptual facilitators (VCF), repeated reading, and teacher guidance, are recommended. Examples of effective practices include vocabulary explanations, “who, what, when” questions, connecting content to personal experiences, graphic organizers, and the use of visual symbols. Additionally, open-ended questions and the provision of materials, cards, or technological tools facilitated learning, even for students with minimal verbal communication. Similarly, Afacan (2020) noted that expectations regarding literacy skills of students with ID must be raised. He identified key elements of effective interventions: short and adapted texts with simple sentences and repeated vocabulary, use of objects and visual facilitators, and graphic organizers. Furthermore, employing sensory materials, word cards, and video recordings strengthened learning and assessment. Methodologically, the gradual fading of support, guided questioning, summarizing, and prediction are recommended. Teacher modeling is also essential, as it demonstrates how to process the text.

Josephet al. (2023) considered reading comprehension critical for both academic progress and development of life skills in students with ID. According to the simple view of reading, comprehension relies on word decoding and linguistic knowledge; however, it is a complex process that require the activation of prior knowledge, understanding of structure, identification of main ideas, and inference drawing. Their review showed that strategies such as prediction, paraphrasing, summarizing, self-questioning, and retelling enhanced comprehension. Open-ended questions proved to be more effective than multiple-choice questions, and teacher guidance played a decisive role. Functional texts facilitate comprehension more than literary texts, and small-group or individual instruction is recommended. Duffy (2016) highlighted that literacy instruction in students with ID requires faith in their abilities, regardless of disability labels or IQ. Teachers should leverage students’ interests and interactions with texts, even if they are unconventional (e.g., interest in the texture or visual elements of a book). Education should not be limited to basic skills but should also encourage creative forms of literacy, such as discussion, role-playing, and story comprehension activities.

Finally, Lindström and Lemons (2021) stressed the need to understand the teaching practices used by educators, as research-based practices applied in schools remain largely unknown. Systematic observation of typical teaching offers a potentially valuable approach to understanding classroom practices associated with outcomes for students with ID.

Purpose of Research

The purpose of this action research study is to investigate the contribution of differentiated instructional material within the TISIPfSEN framework to the development of reading comprehension skills in secondary school students with intellectual disabilities. In addition, it seeks to identify teaching intervention strategies that can enhance active student engagement in the learning process. The research questions are as follows: (1) To what extent does differentiated instructional material support improvements in reading comprehension? (2) Which teaching intervention strategies enhance students’ active engagement in the comprehension process?

Methods

This action research study was conducted over one school year (ten months) in the Laboratory of Special Professional Education and Training for Secondary Education in Athens. At this special school, students attend for six years, focusing on core academic skills and graduate with a lower secondary school certificate. The research included four student case studies, all diagnosed with intellectual disabilities (Christakis, 2011, 2013). The TISIPfSEN pedagogical tool was implemented. Data collection employed observation and teaching intervention methodologies (Drossinou-Korea, 2024).

Sample

The sample consisted of four secondary school students (N = 4) with an average age of 14. Details are as follows:

Student 1: A 15-year-old in the second grade of special school was diagnosed with cerebral palsy and mild intellectual disability. His favorite activity was painting (Fig. 1). In reading and writing, he struggles with phoneme and syllable segmentation in polysyllabic words, reads short sentences accurately but often with irregular rhythm, and requires pre-teaching vocabulary, guiding questions, and visual materials to comprehend the main ideas of short texts. Writing is slow, uses short sentences, and exhibits omissions or letter substitutions in complex words. Morphology and spelling errors are minimal, mostly because of difficulties with noun endings. He performs better in structured, visually supported activities and excels in oral responses.

Fig. 1. Students’ favorite hobbies: (a) dog, (b) “I like playing Fortnite”, (c) football with friends, (d) UNO card game and school.

Student 2: A 17-year-old third-grade student, diagnosed with intellectual disability and generalized difficulties. Shows variable stress tolerance, occasional aggression, and benefits from gentle, flexible, and positive reinforcement approaches. Enjoys video games, such as fornites (Fig. 1). Reading difficulties include phonological discrimination and the recognition of polysyllabic words. Can read simple words and sentences but struggles with longer texts, often losing meaning. Requires guidance with questions and brief explanations. Writing consists of short, simple sentences, with frequent spelling errors and challenges in verb and noun endings, and requires ongoing support. Vocabulary is limited, especially abstract concepts, and organized speech is difficult. They participate effectively in activities involving tangible and experiential stimuli.

Student 3: A 14-year-old in the first grade, diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability. Enjoys playing harmoniums and football with friends (Fig. 1). Easily distracted by external stimuli, they struggle to complete their activities. Reads simple words and sentences but quickly loses focus. Needs short passages with images or symbols for comprehension. Responses well to oral reading accompanied by images. Writing is simple and provides significant support. Faces difficulties in basic spelling conventions, phoneme errors, and endings, including common words. Vocabulary is limited, mostly regarding abstract concepts. Performs best in activities with visual materials and excels in short, goal-focused exercises.

Student 4: A 14-year-old first-grade student, diagnosed with mild intellectual disability. Enjoys board games such as UNO (Fig. 1). Can recognize and read words and sentences mechanically, without expressiveness. Struggles with comprehension, focusing more on decoding than meaning. Requires comprehension of questions and images to connect text to content. The writing does not include complete sentences. Performs better with high-frequency words during spelling. Vocabulary corresponds to younger school age. Engages in activities when clear guidance is provided and can learn new concepts through repeated practice.

Tools

Within the framework of informal pedagogical assessment, observation protocols are utilized along with specific Basic Skills Checklists (BSC) (Ministry of Education-Pedagogical Institute, 1996, 2009). Specifically, BSC assessing skills in neurodevelopmental readiness areas, such as oral language, psychomotor skills, cognitive abilities, and emotional organization, were employed. Furthermore, the skills of the sample were evaluated using BSC for specific learning difficulties, particularly perceptual and memory skills, as well as spatial, reading, mathematical language, and reading behavior skills (Markakis & Drossinou, 2001).

In the teaching intervention methodology, the differentiated material provided to the participants was used to evaluate their basic reading skills. Observations made by the teacher-researcher during the interventions were recorded in specific instructional interaction forms.

Procedure of Research

The study was conducted by a teacher-researcher at special school and followed five phases, as defined by the pedagogical tool TISIPfSEN:

In the first phase, the teacher-researcher collected information about students’ individual, family, and school histories through systematic empirical observation.

In the second phase, an initial informal pedagogical assessment is conducted ( Graphs 1 and 2). Protocols with BSC were completed to assess the students’ skills and determine their instructional priorities.

The instructional programme was structured in the third phase. The instructional goal for the sample was recorded as: “to comprehend texts up to seven lines with seven Visual Conceptual Facilitators (VCF) and address difficulties in meaning through activities targeting neurodevelopmental readiness areas.” This instructional goal was divided into teaching steps with activities of graduated difficulty: a) comprehend texts up to four lines with four VCF and address meaning difficulties through activities in neurodevelopmental readiness areas; b) comprehend texts up to five lines with five VCF and address meaning difficulties through activities in neurodevelopmental readiness areas; c) comprehend texts up to six lines with six VCF and address meaning difficulties through activities in neurodevelopmental readiness areas; d) comprehend texts up to seven lines with seven VCF and address meaning difficulties through activities in neurodevelopmental readiness areas.

The instructional program included differentiated material provided to the students for reading comprehension. This material consists of a three-dimensional reading machine (using a simple box), which is user-friendly, cost-effective, and environmentally sustainable, as it is made from reusable materials (Fig. 2). The three-dimensional reading machine is a structured tool with clear boundaries and organization. Simultaneously, it supports classification skills, allowing for the organization of educational materials. Moreover, it is based on the principles of differentiated instruction and accommodates various needs, considering the pedagogical principle of individuality, as it can be adapted and used in multiple educational ways depending on the objectives of the intervention. Engaging and dynamic stimuli are provided through a reading machine, according to the principles of multisensory learning (Panopoulos, 2025).

Fig. 2. Three-dimensional reading machines: differentiated texts with OED and comprehension activities that focus on neurodevelopmental areas of learning readiness.

In the fourth phase of TISIPfSEN, teaching interventions were implemented to achieve the instructional steps. The interventions included reading texts with VCFs and comprehension activities related to graduate difficulty. The texts were developed by a teacher researcher (Fig. 2), among others. Initially, the students read the texts and then selected the appropriate VCF and placed it next to the correct word. Subsequently, they carried out comprehension activities focusing on the neurodevelopmental readiness areas of oral language, psychomotor skills, cognitive abilities, and emotional organization. For example, based on a text about World Snow Day, students explored the concept of snow while developing fine motor skills. Fluffy balls were glued to the image of a tree (Fig. 3a). The activity was linked to the comprehension of the text, and through this process, they perceived the soft texture of snow and understood how it rested on nature. In another text, that addressed the tradition of flying kites, the students participated in an oral language activity to cultivate clear and precise expression skills (Fig. 3b). The students were asked to handle and observe a wooden kite and answer questions on a table with cards. For instance, in response to the question “What shape is the kite?”, the correct answer was “Octagon,” or for “What color is it?”, the student could use words such as red, yellow and blue. Through these questions and word cards, the students connected the information in the text with the features of the kite, enabling them to understand and clearly express their characteristics.

Fig. 3. (a) Activity focusing on the neurodevelopmental area of psychomotor skills, cultivating fine motor skills, (b) Activity focusing on the neurodevelopmental area of oral speech, cultivating skills of clear and precise expression.

In another text, students explored the meaning of the carnival tradition by completing a laminated double-entry table (Fig. 4a). The table included three columns with the categories “Where do we celebrate?”, “What do we wear?” and “What do we do?” and, two horizontal rows, thus creating a total of six cells. Initially, the students observed the table and then received cards with the words “street” and “school” for the first column, “mask” and “costume” for the second column, and “parade” and “we dance” for the third column. After processing the text, they placed the cards in the correct cells of the table, thereby connecting the concepts. This activity enhanced cognitive skills such as reasoning, as the children did not merely recall information from the text but analyzed, compared, and organized it. The layout of the table allowed us to understand both horizontally and vertically, categorizing the information from the text and drawing logical conclusions.

Fig. 4. (a) Activity focusing on the neurodevelopmental area of cognitive abilities, cultivating reasoning skills, (b) Activity focusing on the neurodevelopmental area of emotional organization, cultivating self-esteem skills.

In another text, the students explored the emotions of the characters in the story, cultivating the skills of emotional organization, such as self-awareness (Fig. 4d). During the activity, the students were asked to investigate the characters’ emotions through questions that helped them recognize and understand their emotional states. They used face symbols to represent emotions and then attempted to recreate them by looking at themselves in a mirror. In the next stage, the focus shifted to students’ personal emotions and their connection to everyday situations. Through this process, understanding of others’ emotions, recognizing and expressing personal emotions, and the development of self-awareness and a positive attitude toward oneself and others were enhanced.

In the fifth phase, after the completion of the teaching interventions, the teacher conducted the final informal pedagogical assessment by completing the BSC. Additionally, considering the records from peer observations and self-observations in the teaching interaction forms, the teacher derived research conclusions.

Results

The basic skills checklist (BSC) was completed in an excel file as follows: in the horizontal rows, the skills of each reading behavior area were recorded and, evaluated according to the interactive pedagogical relationship and experience, regarding the students’ performance in neurodevelopmental readiness areas and specific learning difficulties. The vertical columns of the tables correspond to the semesters of schooling according to the formal and compulsory education systems, in ascending order from number 1, corresponding to the first semester of kindergarten, to number 26, corresponding to the second semester of the third year of high school. The allocation of each skill to a specific semester was based on the developmental and learning milestones defined by the formal curriculum. Thus, the skills are arranged along a continuum of 26 semesters (from the first semester of kindergarten to the final semester of high school). For each skill, the teacher estimates the semester that corresponds most closely to the student’s observed performance, by comparing it with the level expected at that point in schooling. In this way, the placement in a semester is not arbitrary but reflects a systematic alignment of performance with the expected stage of the educational continuum. A solid horizontal line crosses the horizontal rows and constitutes the “baseline” (gray line), corresponding to the student’s current semester according to their school age. The teacher symbolically marks the cell that they estimate corresponding to the level of achievement for each skill. Once this process is completed, a zigzag line is created showing the student’s highest and lowest deviations from the baseline (Panopoulos, 2025). The teacher was asked to create two zigzag lines recording the student’s performance during the initial (blue line) and final informal pedagogical assessments (orange line). These tables are presented as graphs for the purposes of this study.

In Fig. 5, the average of the sample, consisting of four students—two in the first year of junior high school, one in the second year, and one in the third year—is shown. The baseline was set at the 16th semester (first year, second semester of junior high school), as it corresponded to the average school age of the students and the time of the action research. At the final assessment, overall improvement was recorded in all neurodevelopmental readiness. The sample initially showed a deviation of 10 semesters from the baseline, which decreased by two semesters (8th semester, fourth grade of primary school, and second semester). According to the teaching interaction forms, this improvement is associated with the use of texts related to global days and activities connected to students’ personal interests (e.g., activities, music and games). This approach helped students remain more focused, as they felt familiar with the content and showed a greater willingness to comprehend the texts. Reasoning skills, in the final assessment, were recorded two semesters higher than the initial observation, reaching the 9th semester (fourth grade of primary school—first semester). This progress is attributed, according to the teaching interaction records, to the use of single- and double-entry tables as well as image sequencing activities directly related to the text content. Through these interventions, students had the opportunity to organize information, recognize causal relationships, and better understand the text structure, which significantly contributed to the development of their reasoning skills. Furthermore, a significant improvement (three semesters) was observed in self-awareness, pace, and interest in learning. According to the teaching interaction records, students were reinforced through positive feedback and rewards, helping them accept failure and recognize success in their activities. Reading pace improved through systematic practice with short texts and musical instruments, while interest in learning increased owing to the use of differentiated instructional material tailored to their experiences.

Fig. 5. Average performance of learning readiness during reading skills instruction.

According to the completion of the BSC concerning specific learning difficulties, the average skill level of the sample improved in almost all areas by at least one semester (Fig. 6). The greatest progress was recorded in semantic skills, with an increase of four semesters, reaching the 10th semester (fourth grade of primary school and second semester). According to teaching interaction records, this improvement is associated with the visual support of vocabulary within the text, as students using VCF processed and understood difficult and new words whose meanings were connected to the text content. Additionally, improvements in two semesters were observed in areas such as multisensory perceptual functions (10th semester: fourth grade of primary school and second semester), phonological awareness (9th semester: fourth grade of primary school and first semester), and reading self-concept (7th semester: third grade of primary school and first semester). Based on peer and self-observations recorded in the teaching interaction forms, students engaged in activities that combined tactile, visual, and auditory stimuli to enhance comprehension and information recall. Regarding phonological awareness, students practiced matching sounds to letters, blending words from syllables, and repeatedly reading high-frequency words, which reinforced automated decoding and word comprehension within the text. Finally, their self-esteem as readers was strengthened through positive feedback during the reading of short texts and guidance in connecting the text’s meaning with their personal experiences. Students were encouraged to recognize their success in comprehension and become familiar with small challenges, which enhanced their confidence in their reading abilities.

Fig. 6. Average performance of specific learning difficulties during reading skills instruction.

Discussion

The first key finding concerns the extent to which students with intellectual disabilities (ID) can engage with difficulties related to text meaning (Afacan & Wilkerson, 2022). Text comprehension activities that focus on the neurodevelopmental areas of learning readiness, such as oral language, psychomotor skills, cognitive abilities, and emotional regulation, together with the three-dimensional reading machine, visual conceptual facilitators, and experiential texts, constitute elements of differentiated pedagogical material that substantially support text comprehension. Through these activities, cognitive, linguistic, emotional, and psychomotor channels are activated, allowing the organization and storage of information in working memory and the integrated processing of meaning (Drossinou-Korea, 2024).

Visual conceptual facilitators in texts act as “learning ramps”. Additionally, through the three-dimensional reading machine, students were able to connect written language with tangible objects, which facilitated access to meaning and reduced the difficulties encountered in abstract text processing. This enhances the activation of visual and kinesthetic memory, cultivates attention, and promoted more active engagement with content (Panopoulos, 2025). Experiential and brief texts connect learning with personal experiences, fostering empathy and information recall (Biggset al., 2023). The implementation of the TISIPfSEN tool ensures that the material is individualized and structured according to each student’s needs, through the phases of assessment, program design, and final evaluation, allowing for an estimation of how pedagogical materials contribute to text comprehension (Drossinou-Korea, 2024).

Regarding the second research question, the data analysis showed that students’ active participation in the learning process was enhanced through strategies grounded in the SADPEAE phases, particularly in program design and intervention implementation. Individualization is a core principle, as instructional materials are adapted to the unique needs, abilities, and interests of students, creating a learning environment that is more accessible and familiar. Moreover, differentiated activities allowed multi-level access to content, ensuring that all students could engage in ways aligned with their learning preferences. Emphasis was placed on the multisensory approach, as activities combining visual, auditory, and kinesthetic stimuli enhance attention, memory, and sustained interest (Panopoulos & Drossinou-Korea, 2024). The use of experiential texts drawn from students’ daily lives created stronger motivation for active engagement, while visual conceptual facilitators provided “learning ramps” for comprehension. Overall, strategies based on TISIPfSEN principles contributed significantly to establishing a learning framework in which participation was not passive but involved meaningful engagement and interaction with content (Drossinou-Korea, 2024).

Conclusions

The action research examined demonstrates that students with intellectual disabilities attending Special Vocational Education and Training Laboratories (E.E.E.E.K.) can engage in activities related to text comprehension. Classroom observation records provide valuable insights into typical teaching practices, materials, quality, and student engagement. They allow for a more comprehensive understanding of teaching effectiveness and educational decision-making (Lindström & Lemons, 2021). By examining classroom practices in E.E.E.E.K. and gaining a deeper understanding of reading instruction for students with ID, learning outcomes can be improved.

The TISIPfSEN pedagogical tool, structured into five phases, supports special education teachers in organizing instructional interventions and developing pedagogical materials, such as a three-dimensional reading machine, based on the principles of individualization and multisensory learning. Activities focusing on the four neurodevelopmental areas of learning readiness provide challenging and dynamic stimuli, enabling students with ID to address difficulties related to text content, thereby enhancing comprehension skills and active participation in learning (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Targeted, individual, structured, and integrated program for students with special educational needs (TISIPfSEN).

Limitations

Although the small sample is a limitation, within the framework of case study–based action research it functions as an advantage, allowing for in-depth analysis and systematic monitoring of learning processes. The aim of the present study is not statistical generalization, but the exploration and understanding of teaching practices for students with intellectual disabilities in real educational settings. Moreover, each student with intellectual disabilities exhibits unique characteristics, needs, and responses to instruction. Therefore, focusing on a few cases is particularly valuable for highlighting heterogeneity, understanding educational needs, and implementing differentiated and individualized materials. In the future, further studies could be conducted to confirm the findings of this research.

Acknowledgment

My colleagues at the school and the University of Peloponnese, in Greece, for the collaboration.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they do not have any conflict of interest.