Ph.D., Research Scientist, Programs Dept., Harmony Public Schools, Houston, USA.
* Corresponding author
Associate Professor, Curriculum and Instruction, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, USA.

Article Main Content

This study investigated the impact of online learning on students’ math and ELA test scores through the lens of their personal skills in addition to students’ reflections about their experience with online learning. We recruited Harmony Public Schools (HPS) 3rd–10th-grade students. We used paired t-test and multiple regression for the first and second research questions, respectively. We utilized mainly a qualitative approach for the third question. We found that HPS schools’ students made progress in math and ELA (English Language Arts) although their regular schooling completely moved to online during the 2020-2021 school year. We also found that students with higher self-efficacy, growth mindset and engagement scores had higher test scores compared to their counterparts with lower of those values. Qualitative data findings revealed that students found online learning more comfortable and convenient, however, they disliked the motivation and technical problems, and lack of social component of it.

References

  1. Apex Learning. (2017). 12 benefits of virtual schools. Retrieved from https://cdn.apexlearning.com/al/12-Benefits-Virtual-Schools-Infographic.pdf.
     Google Scholar
  2. Appanna, S. (2008). A review of benefits and limitations of online learning in the context of student, the instructor, and the tenured faculty. International JI on E-Learning, 7(1), 5–22.
     Google Scholar
  3. Appleton, J. J., Christenson, S. L., Kim, D., & Reschly, A. L. (2006). Measuring cognitive and psychological engagement: Validation of the Student Engagement Instrument. Journal of School Psychology, 44(5), 427–445. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2006.04.002.
     Google Scholar
  4. Appleton, J. J., Christenson, S. L., & Furlong, M. J. (2008). Student engagement with school: Critical conceptual and methodological issues of the construct. Psychology in the Schools, 45, 369–386.
     Google Scholar
  5. Bailey, D. H., Duncan, G. J., Murnane, R. J., & Yeung, N. A. (2021). Achievement gaps in the wake of COVID-19. Educational Researcher. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X211011237.
     Google Scholar
  6. Back to School Playbook. (2020). Harmony public schools: Back to school playbook. Retrieved from https://harmonytx.org/playbook
     Google Scholar
  7. Beasley, T. M., & Schumacker, R. E. (1995). Multiple regression approach to analyzing contingency tables: Post hoc and planned comparison procedures. The Journal of Experimental Education, 64(1), 79–93.
     Google Scholar
  8. Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2001). Do people mean what they say? Implications for subjective survey data. Economics and Social Behavior, 91(2), 67–72.
     Google Scholar
  9. Bong, M., & Clark, R. E. (1999). Comparison between self-concept and self-efficacy in academic motivation research. Educational Psychologist, 34, 139–153.
     Google Scholar
  10. Brittany, G. (2015). Online learning revealing the benefits and challenges. Education Masters, 303.
     Google Scholar
  11. Claro, S., & Loeb (2019a). Self-management skills and student achievement gains: Evidence from California’s CORE districts. (EdWorkingPaper: 19-138). Retrieved from Annenberg Institute at Brown University: http://www.edworkingpapers.com/ai19-138.
     Google Scholar
  12. Claro, S., & Loeb, S. (2019b). Students with growth mindset learn more in school. CORE-PACE Research Partnership.
     Google Scholar
  13. Corbin, J. M., & Strauss, A. (1990). Grounded theory research: Procedures, canons, and evaluative criteria. Qualitative Sociology, 13, 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00988593.
     Google Scholar
  14. Converse, J. (2016). Six commonly used MAP Growth terms worth knowing. Retrieved from https://www.nwea.org/blog/2016/six-commonly-used-map-growth-terms-worth-knowing.
     Google Scholar
  15. Denzin, N. (2012). Triangulation 2.0. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 6, 80–88. doi:10.1177/1558689812437186.
     Google Scholar
  16. Dolan, J. E. (2016). Splicing the divide: A review of research on the evolving digital divide among K-12 students. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 48, 16–37.
     Google Scholar
  17. Duckworth, A. L., Taxer, J. L., Eskreis-Winkler, L., Galla, B. M., & Gross, J. J. (2019). Self-control and academic achievement. Annual Review of Psychology, 70, 373–399.
     Google Scholar
  18. Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dynmicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Development, 82, 405–432.
     Google Scholar
  19. Dweck, C. S. (1999). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. Taylor & Francis.
     Google Scholar
  20. Engzell, P, Frey, A., & Verhagen, M. D. (2021). Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118, 1–7.
     Google Scholar
  21. Ewing, L. & Cooper, H. B. (2021). Technology-enabled remote learning during COVID-19: Perspectives of Australian teachers, students, and parents. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 30(1), 41–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2020.1868562.
     Google Scholar
  22. Fan, X., & Chen, M. (2001). Parental involvement and students' academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 13(1), 1–22.
     Google Scholar
  23. Filippou, K. (2019). Students’ academic self-efficacy in international master’s degree programs in Finnish schools. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 31(1), 86–95.
     Google Scholar
  24. Finn, J. D., & Rock, D. A. (1997). Academic success among students at risk for school failure. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(2), 221–234. doi: 10.1037/0021- 9010.82.2.221.
     Google Scholar
  25. Fishel, M., & Ramirez, L. (2005). Evidence-based parent involvement interventions with school-aged children. School Psychology Quarterly, 20(4), 371–402.
     Google Scholar
  26. Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59–109. doi: 10.3102/00346543074001059.
     Google Scholar
  27. Gadermann, A. C., Thomson, K. C., Richardson, C. G., Gagne, M., McAuliffe, C., Hirani, S., & Jenkins, E. (2021). Examining the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on family mental health in Canada: Findings from a national cross-sectional study. BMJ Open, 11(1), 1–11. e042871. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-042871.
     Google Scholar
  28. Garcia-Perez, M. A., & Nunez-Anton, V. (2003). Cellwise residual analysis in two-way contingency tables. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 63(5), 825–839.
     Google Scholar
  29. Google Play (2018). Nearpod. Retrieved from https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.panareadigital.Nearpod&hl=en_US&gl=US
     Google Scholar
  30. Greene, J. A., & Azevedo, R. (2007). A theoretical review of Winne and Hadwin’s model of self-regulated learning: new perspectives and directions. Review of Educational Research, 77, 334–372.
     Google Scholar
  31. Hamilton, L. S., Grant, D., Kaufman, J. H., Dilberti, M., Schwartz, H. L., Hunter, G. P., Messan Setodji, C., & Young, C. J. (2020). COVID-19 and the state of K–12 schools Results and technical documentation from the Spring 2020 American educator panels COVID-19 Surveys. RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA168-1.html.
     Google Scholar
  32. Henderson, M. B., Peterson, P. E., & West, M. R. (2020). Pandemic parent survey finds perverse pattern: Students are more likely to be attending school in person where covid is spreading more rapidly. Retrieved from https://www.educationnext.org/pandemic-parent-survey-finds-perverse-pattern-students-more-likely-to-be-attending-school-in-person-where-covid-is-spreading-more-rapidly/
     Google Scholar
  33. Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Bond, A. (2020). The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. Retrieved from https://er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/the-difference-between-emergency-remote-teaching-and-online-learning
     Google Scholar
  34. Honicke, T., & Broadbent, J. (2016). The influence of academic self-efficacy on academic performance: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 17, 63–84.
     Google Scholar
  35. Hou, C.-Y. (2020). The advantages and disadvantages of online learning during the coronavirus pandemic. Retrieved from https://thehill.com/changing-america/well-being/prevention-cures/505452-the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-online.
     Google Scholar
  36. Huang, L., Bicol, K., & Willcox, K. (2021). Modeling COVID-19 disruptions via network mapping of the Common Core Mathematics Standards. ASEE Annual Conference. https://mapping.mit.edu/publications/assets/educational-mapping-covid-Huang-Bicol-Willcox.pdf.
     Google Scholar
  37. Jeynes, W. H. (2003). A meta-analysis: The effects of parental involvement on minority children’s academic achievement. Education and Urban Society, 35(2), 202–218.
     Google Scholar
  38. Jeynes, W. H. (2005). A meta-analysis of the relation of parental involvement to urban elementary school student academic achievement. Urban Education, 40(3), 237–269.
     Google Scholar
  39. Kuhfeld, M., Soland, J., Tarasawa, B., Johnson, A., Ruzek, E., & Liu, J. (2020). Projecting the impact of COVID-19 school closures on academic achievement. Educational Researcher, 49, 549–565.
     Google Scholar
  40. Kuhfeld, M., & Tarasawa, B. (2020). The COVID-19 slide: What summer learning loss can tell us about the potential impact of school closures on student academic achievement. Northwest Evaluation Association.
     Google Scholar
  41. Lee, J., & Shute, V. J. (2010). Personal and social-contextual factors in K-12 academic performance: An integrative perspective on student learning. Educational Psychologist, 45, 185–202.
     Google Scholar
  42. Lei, H., Cui, Y., & Zhou, W. (2018). Relationships between student engagement and academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Social Behavior and Personality, 46, 517–528.
     Google Scholar
  43. Li, C., & Lalani, F. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic has changed education forever: This is how. Retrieved from https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/04/coronavirus-education-global-covid19-online-digital-learning/
     Google Scholar
  44. Marshall, D. T., & Bradley-Dorsey, M. (2020) Reopening America’s schools: A descriptive look at how states and large school districts are navigating Fall 2020. Journal of School Choice, 14, 534–566.
     Google Scholar
  45. McCready, T. (2017). 13 huge advantages to taking online classes. Retrieved from https://www.cornerstone.edu/blog-post/13-huge-advantages-to-taking-online-classes/.
     Google Scholar
  46. Major, A. (2016). Sources of self-efficacy, self-efficacy for self-regulated learning, and student engagement in adolescents with ADHD. Retrieved from https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/76471/3/Major_Ashley_201611_PhD_thesis.pdf.
     Google Scholar
  47. Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Poulton, R., et al. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 2693. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010076108.
     Google Scholar
  48. Moser, K. M., Wei, T., & Brenner, D. (2021). Remote teaching during COVID-19: Implication from a national survey of language educators. System, 97, 1–15.
     Google Scholar
  49. National Association of Independent Schools. (2010). K-12 online learning: A literature review. Retrieved from https://www.nais.org/Articles/Documents/K-12-Online2010finalv1.pdf.
     Google Scholar
  50. Northwest Evaluation Association. (2021). About NWEA. We are mission-driven, student-centric. Retrieved from https://www.nwea.org/about/.
     Google Scholar
  51. Northwest Evaluation Association Psychometric Solutions. (2020). Linking study report: Predicting performance on the performance evaluation for Alaska’s Schools (PEAKS) based on NWEA MAP growth scores. Retrieved from https://www.nwea.org/content/uploads/2020/07/AK-MAP-Growth-Linking-Study-Report-2020-07-21.pdf.
     Google Scholar
  52. Manzano-Sanchez, H., Outley, C., Gonzalez, J. E., & Matarrita-Cascante, D. (2018). The influence of self-efficacy beliefs in the academic performance of Latina/o students in the United States: A systematic literature review. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 40, 176–209.
     Google Scholar
  53. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2020). Strengthening online learning when schools are closed: The role of families and teachers in supporting students during the COVID-19 crisis. Retrieved from: https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/view/?ref=136_136615-o13x4bkowa&title=Strengthening-online-learning-when-schools-are-closed&_ga=2.62420396.1653021104.1623336439-176289268.1623336439
     Google Scholar
  54. Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66, 543–578.
     Google Scholar
  55. Park, D., Tsukayama, E., Goodwin, G. P., Patrick, S., & Duckworth, A. L. (2017). A tripartite taxonomy of character: Evidence for intrapersonal, interpersonal, and intellectual competencies in children. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 48, 16–27.
     Google Scholar
  56. Pianta, R. C., & Stuhlman, M. W. (2004). Teacher-child relationships and children’s success in the first years of school. School Psychology Review, 33, 444, 458.
     Google Scholar
  57. Pier, L., Christian, M., Tymeson, H., & Meyer, R. H. (2021, June). COVID-19 impacts on student learning: Evidence from interim assessments in California [Report]. Policy Analysis for California Education. https://edpolicyinca.org/publications/covid-19-impacts-student-learning.
     Google Scholar
  58. Reschly, A. L., Huebner, E. S., Appleton, J. J., & Antaramian, S. (2008). Engagement as flourishing: The contribution of positive emotions and coping to adolescents’ engagement at school and with learning. Psychology in the Schools, 45, 419–431.
     Google Scholar
  59. Renaissance. (2021). How kids are performing: Tracking the midyear impact of COVID-19 on reading and mathematics achievement. Retrieved from https://renaissance.widen.net/s/zvq8rnrp9t/r63370.
     Google Scholar
  60. Roorda, D. L., Koomen, H. M. Y., Spilt, J. L., & Oort, F. J. (2011). The influence of affective teacher-student relationships on students’ school engagement and achievement: A meta-analytic approach. Review of Educational Research, 81, 493–529.
     Google Scholar
  61. Santibañez, L., & Guarino, C. M. (2021). The effects of absenteeism on academic and social-emotional outcomes: Lessons for COVID-19. Educational Researcher. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X21994488.
     Google Scholar
  62. Sahni, S. D., Polanin, J. R., Zhang, Q., Michaelson, L. E., Caverly, S., Polese, M. L., & Yang, J. (2021). A What Works Clearinghouse rapid evidence review of distance learning programs (WWC 2021-005REV). What Works Clearinghouse.
     Google Scholar
  63. Talsma, K., Schüz, B., Schwarzzer, R., & Norris, K. (2018). I believe, therefore I achieve (and vice versa): A meta-analytic cross-lagged panel analysis of self-efficacy and academic achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 61, 136–150.
     Google Scholar
  64. Taylor, E. (2014). The correlation between self-efficacy and the academic success of students. Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/58825904.pdf
     Google Scholar
  65. Transforming Education. (2016). Measuring MESH: Student and teacher surveys curated for the CORE Districts. Retrieved from https://transformingeducation.org/resources/measuring-mesh/
     Google Scholar
  66. West, M. R., Kraft, M. A., Finn, A. S., Martin, R. E., Duckworth, A. L., Gabrieli, C. F. O., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2016). Promise and paradox: Measuring students’ non-cognitive skills and the impact of schooling. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 38, 148–170.
     Google Scholar
  67. Wong, B. (2020). How remote learning has changed the nature of school bullying. Retrieved from https://www.huffpost.com/entry/bullying-problem-remote-learning_l_5f61214fc5b68d1b09c8dc16
     Google Scholar
  68. Yeager, D. S., Hanselman, P., Walton, G. M., Murray, J. S., Crosnoe, R., Muller, C., Tipton, E., Schneider, B., Hulleman, C., et al. (2019). A national experiment reveals where a growth mindset improves achievement. Nature, 573(7774), 364–369. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1466-y.
     Google Scholar